CHAPTER1: Media, Technology, and Learning
A. LEARNING
Learning is the
development of new knowledges, skills, or attitudes as an individual interacts
with information and the environment. The learning environment includes the
physical facilities , the psychological atmosphere, instructional methods,
media, and technology. Learning takes place all the time. We can learn from
many things.
Thus, learning process
involves the selection, arrangement, and delivery of information in an
appropriate environment and the way learners interact with that information.
1.
Psychological Perspective on
Learning
How instructors view the role of media and technology in the classroom depends verey much on their beliefs about how people learn. Over the past half century there haqve been several dominant theories of learning. Learning theories and their impact on teaching decisions are discussed in greater detail by Driscoll (1994).
How instructors view the role of media and technology in the classroom depends verey much on their beliefs about how people learn. Over the past half century there haqve been several dominant theories of learning. Learning theories and their impact on teaching decisions are discussed in greater detail by Driscoll (1994).
a. Behaviorist
Perspective
In the mid 1950s, the focus on learning research started to shift from stimulus design (communication) to learner response to stimuli. At the forefront of this movement was B. P Skinner, a psychologist at Harvard University. Skinner was proponent of behaviorism but with an important difference: he was interested in voluntary behavior, such as learning new skills, rather than reflexive behavior, as illustrated by Pavlov’s famous salivating dog. He demonstrated that the behavior of an organism could be shaped by reinforcing, or rewarding, the desired responses to the environment.
In the mid 1950s, the focus on learning research started to shift from stimulus design (communication) to learner response to stimuli. At the forefront of this movement was B. P Skinner, a psychologist at Harvard University. Skinner was proponent of behaviorism but with an important difference: he was interested in voluntary behavior, such as learning new skills, rather than reflexive behavior, as illustrated by Pavlov’s famous salivating dog. He demonstrated that the behavior of an organism could be shaped by reinforcing, or rewarding, the desired responses to the environment.
b. Cognitive
Perspective
Cognitives, on the other hand, are making a primary contribution to learning theory and instructional design by creating models of how learners receive, process, and manipulate information. Cognitive create a mental model of short-term and long-term memory. New information in stored in short-term memory, where it is “rehearsed” inril ready to be stored in long-term memory. If the information is not rehearsed, it fades from short term memory. The three concepts of mental development in Piaget’s work are schemata, assimilation, and accommodation (Piaget, 1977).
Cognitives, on the other hand, are making a primary contribution to learning theory and instructional design by creating models of how learners receive, process, and manipulate information. Cognitive create a mental model of short-term and long-term memory. New information in stored in short-term memory, where it is “rehearsed” inril ready to be stored in long-term memory. If the information is not rehearsed, it fades from short term memory. The three concepts of mental development in Piaget’s work are schemata, assimilation, and accommodation (Piaget, 1977).
1)
Schemata.
Schemata are the mental structures by which individuals organize their perceived environment. Schemata are adapted or changed during mental development and learning they are used to identify, process, and store incoming information and can be thought of as categories individuals use to classify specific information and experiences.
Schemata are the mental structures by which individuals organize their perceived environment. Schemata are adapted or changed during mental development and learning they are used to identify, process, and store incoming information and can be thought of as categories individuals use to classify specific information and experiences.
2)
Assimilation
Assimilation is the cognitive process by which a learner integrates new information and experiences inti existing schemata. During learning, assimilation results from experiences.
Assimilation is the cognitive process by which a learner integrates new information and experiences inti existing schemata. During learning, assimilation results from experiences.
3)
Accomodation.
The process of modifying existing schemata or creating new one is called accommodation. When dealing withy a new concept or experience, the learner attempts to assimilate it into existing schemata. When it does not fit, there are two possible responses:
The process of modifying existing schemata or creating new one is called accommodation. When dealing withy a new concept or experience, the learner attempts to assimilate it into existing schemata. When it does not fit, there are two possible responses:
a) The
learner can create a new schema into which the new stimulus is placed.
b)
The
existing schema can be modified so that the new stimulus will fit
c. Constructivist
perspective
Constructivism is a movement that extend beyond the beliefs of the cognitivist. It considers the engagement of students in meaningful experiences as the essence of learning. Constructivist emphasize that learners create their own interpretations of the world of information. The constructivist will argue that students situate the learning experience within their own experience and that the goal of instruction is not to teach information but to create situations so that students can interpret unformation for their own understanding.
Constructivism is a movement that extend beyond the beliefs of the cognitivist. It considers the engagement of students in meaningful experiences as the essence of learning. Constructivist emphasize that learners create their own interpretations of the world of information. The constructivist will argue that students situate the learning experience within their own experience and that the goal of instruction is not to teach information but to create situations so that students can interpret unformation for their own understanding.
d. Social-Psychological
Perspective.
Social psychology is another wells estabiished tradition in the study of instuction and learning. Social psychologists look at the effect of the social organization of the classroom on learning such as the group structure of the classroom: independent study, small groups, or the class as a whole, the authority structure: how much control do students have over their own activies, and what is the reward structure.
Social psychology is another wells estabiished tradition in the study of instuction and learning. Social psychologists look at the effect of the social organization of the classroom on learning such as the group structure of the classroom: independent study, small groups, or the class as a whole, the authority structure: how much control do students have over their own activies, and what is the reward structure.
2.
Approaches to Instruction
Instruction is the arrangement of information and environment to facilitate learning. By enviroent we mean not only where instruction takes place but also the methods, media, technology needed to convey in- formation and guide the learner's study. While behaviorists stress external control over a learner's behavior, cognitivists stress internal, or learner, control over mental processes. Behaviorists specify behavioral (performance) objec 1 tives, then limit instruction to whatever is necessary to master those objectives. Unlike behaviorists, cognitivists do not limit their definition of learning to observable behavior. They be lieve that learners learn more than is expressed in im mediate bechaviors. Instrutors and instructional designers need to develop an electric attitude toward competing schools of learning psychology.
Instruction is the arrangement of information and environment to facilitate learning. By enviroent we mean not only where instruction takes place but also the methods, media, technology needed to convey in- formation and guide the learner's study. While behaviorists stress external control over a learner's behavior, cognitivists stress internal, or learner, control over mental processes. Behaviorists specify behavioral (performance) objec 1 tives, then limit instruction to whatever is necessary to master those objectives. Unlike behaviorists, cognitivists do not limit their definition of learning to observable behavior. They be lieve that learners learn more than is expressed in im mediate bechaviors. Instrutors and instructional designers need to develop an electric attitude toward competing schools of learning psychology.
3.
Finding a Middle Ground
Successful instructional practice have features that are supported by virtually all the various perspective:
Successful instructional practice have features that are supported by virtually all the various perspective:
➤
active
participation: effective learning happens when students are actively engaged in
meaningful tasks, interacting with the content.
➤ practice. New learning requires more than one exposure to take root.
➤ practice. New learning requires more than one exposure to take root.
➤ individual
differences: learners vary in terms of personality, general aptitude, knowledge
of a subject , and many other factors.
➤ Feedback:
feedback may be provided by teacher correction of papers, electronic messages
from a computer, the scoring system of a game, or by other means.
➤
realistic
contexts. We are most likely to remember and to apply knowledge that is
presented in a real-world context.
➤
social
interaction.Follow humans serving as tutors or peer group members can provide a
number of pedagogical as well as social supports.
The learning frameworks that
we will examine in detail all attempt to incorporate a number of these
pedagogical features.
4.
A Philosophical Perspective on
Learning
More than a few observers have argued that the wide spread use of instructional hardware in the classroom lcads to treating students as if they were machines rather than human beings-that is, that technology dehuman izes the teaching/learning process. If teachers perceive learners as machines, they will treat them as such, with or without the use of instruc tional media and technology. If teachers perceive their students as human beings with rights, privileges, and motivations of their own, with or without the aid of media and technclogy, they will view students as people en gaged in learning.
Students with a high level of anxiety are prone to make mistakes and to learn less cfficiently when under pressure. Many times, stressful learning situations for high-anxiety students make it difficult for them to succeed. Contrary to what some educators believe, technology and humanism can cxist either together or separately in an array of ways. Figure 1.2 suggests four basic combinations of technology and humanism.
More than a few observers have argued that the wide spread use of instructional hardware in the classroom lcads to treating students as if they were machines rather than human beings-that is, that technology dehuman izes the teaching/learning process. If teachers perceive learners as machines, they will treat them as such, with or without the use of instruc tional media and technology. If teachers perceive their students as human beings with rights, privileges, and motivations of their own, with or without the aid of media and technclogy, they will view students as people en gaged in learning.
Students with a high level of anxiety are prone to make mistakes and to learn less cfficiently when under pressure. Many times, stressful learning situations for high-anxiety students make it difficult for them to succeed. Contrary to what some educators believe, technology and humanism can cxist either together or separately in an array of ways. Figure 1.2 suggests four basic combinations of technology and humanism.
Here are some examples:
➤
A
college lecture with little or no interaction be tween the professor and the
students-ow in technology and low in humanism.
➤
A course
consisting of a required series of computer-based lessons, each composed of
performance objctives, materials to be used to complete thosc objcctives, and a
self-evaluation ly format- high in technology and low in humanism.
➤
Similar
to sample B, but students select the topic of study based on their interests
and consultation with an instructor. Designed into this instructional system
are periodic interactions between student and instructor, discussing the
present state of learning and what should be studied next--high in technology
and high in humanism.
➤
A
group meets on a regular basis to discuss common reading assignments-low in
technology ir and high in humanism.
These examples are overly
simplified and used only to illustrate the concept, but they serve as a basis
for ana- lyzing the relationship between humanism and technology. They
illustrate that instruction can be low in both humanism and technology, just as
it can be high in both. Using instructional technology does not precludc a
humane teaching/learning cnvironment. When instructional media and technology
are used property and creativcly in the dlassroom, it is the ma- chines that
arc turned on and off at will, not the students.
- MEDIA
A
medium (plural, media) is a channel of communication. Derived from the Latin
word meaning "between," the term refers to anything that carries
information between a source and a receiver. Examples include video,
relevision, diagrams, printed materials, computers, and in structors. These are
considered instructional media when Instructional o they carry messages with an
instructional purpose. The purpose of media is to facilitate communication.
The
media and methods preferred by training directors are often different from
those used by educators. Another difference
arises from the fact that training directors are dealing with adults rather
than children and adolescents. Role playing, games, and simulations arc used
much more frequently in training programs, partic ularly with management,
supervisory, and sales personnel. The diversity of media used for instruction
is illus trated by Figure 1.3.
- The
concrete-Abstract Continuum
Instructional media that incorporate concrete expences help students integrate prior experience and thus facilitate learning of abstract concepts. Decisions regarding trade-offs between the concreteness of learning expericnces and time constraints have to Bruner be made continually by the instructor. In 1946, Edgar Dale developed the "Cone of Experience" (Dale, 1969).
In the Cone of Experience we start with the learner as
participant in the actual experience, then move to the learner as observer of
the actual event, to the learner as observer of an event presented through some
medium, and finally to the learner observing symbols that repre sent an event.
Dale contended that learners could make profitable use of more abstract
instructional activities to the extent that they had built up a stock of mote
con crete experiences to give meaning to the more abstract representations of
reality.
In general,
as you move up Dale's Cone of Experience toward the more abstract media, more
information cani be compressed into a shorter period of time It more time for
students to engage in a direct pirpose experienc,2 contrived experience, or a
dramanied perience than it does to present the same information in a videotape,
a recording, a scries of visual symbols, or a series of verbal symbols.
Dale's
Coue of Experience, although a simplification of complex relationships, is a
practical guide to analyzing the characteristics of instructional media and
methods and the way these media may be useful. The greatest amount of
information can be presented in the least amount of time through printed or
spoken words (the top of the concrete-abstract continuum). But if students do
not have the requisite back-ground experience and knowledge to handle these
verbal symbols, the time saved in presentation will be time lost in learning.
- THE ROLES OF MEDIA
Media can serve many roles in learning. The
instruction may be dependent on the presence of a teacver (ie., in- structor
directed). Even in this situation, media may be heavily used by the teacher.
- Instructor-Directed Instruction
The most common use of
media in an instructional situation is for supplemental support of the
"live" instructor in the classroom. Certainly, properly designed
instructional media can enhance and promote Icarning and support teacher-based
instruction. But their effectiveness depends on the instructor. Advance organizer may take the form of an overview
of or an introduction to lesson con- tent, a statement of principles contained
in the information to be presented, a statement of lcar.ing objectives, and so
on. Whatever the form, it is intended to create a mindset for reception of
instruction Advance organizers can be effective instruments for ensuring that
media play their proper rolc as supplemental supporters of instruction. Many
commercially available materials today have built in advance organizers, which
may be uscd as is or adapted by the instructor.
- Instructor-Independent Instruction
Media can also be used cffectively in formal
education situations where a teacher is not available or is working with other
students. Media are often packaged" for this purpose: objectives are
listed, guid- ance in achieving objectives is given, materials arc assembled,
and self-evaluation guideliness are provided.
The
use of self-instructional materials allows teachers to spend more of their time
diagnosing and correcting student problems, consulting with individual
students, and teaching one on out and in small groups. This is not to say, of course, that
instructional technology can or shoudd seplace the teacher, but r that media
can help teachers become creativ: managers of the learning experience instead of
merely dispensers of information.
- Media Portfolios
A
portfolio is a collection of student work that illustrates growth over a period
of time. Portfolios often include such artifacts as student-produced
illustrated books, videos, and audiovisual presentations. Portfolios allow students to do the following
:
➤ Gather,
organize, and share information
➤ Analyze
relationships
➤ Test
hypotheses
➤
Communicate
the results effectively
➤
Record
a variety of performances
➤
Reflect
on their learning and activities
➤
Emphasize
their goals, outcomes, and priorities
➤ Demonstrate
their crcativity and personality
Portfolios could contain the
following artifacts:
➤ Written
documents such as poems, stories, or research papers
➤Media
presentations, such as slide sets or photo essays
➤ Audio
recordings of debates, panel discussions, or oral presentations
➤Video
recordings of students' athietic, musicai, or dancing skills
➤ Computer
multimedia projects incorporating print, data, graphics, and moving images
➤ Educators
frustrated with standardized testing and conventional paper-and-pencil
assessments are having students demonstrate their achievements by compiling
portfolios of their work.
The
idea of portfolio assessment, then, is to measure students' achievements by
their ability to create tangible products exemplifying their accomplishments in
terms of analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Portfolios provide a broad
picture of what students know and can do. They can portray both the process and
products of student works, as well as demonstrate student growth.
Electronic Portofolios
Electronic
portofolios have advantages over traditional portofolios in the way they are
created and navigates. Creating electronic portofolios can expand the size of
the audience to the world. To create electronic portofolios with full
capabilities hard wade is needed.
- Thematic Instruction
Many
teachers are now organizing their instruction instruction around themes or
anchors. Elementary teachers in particular are integrating content and skills
from many subjects. At the secondary level, teams of teachers from different
content areas are working together to show the overlap of their course content.
These units provide a rich cnvironment or focus within which learning takes
place.
- Distance Education
Distance education is a rapidly developing approach to
instruction worldwide. The approach has been widecly used by business,
industrial, and medical organizations.
The distinguishing
characteristic of distance education is the separation of the instructional
team and student(s) during the learning process. As a consequencc, the course
hav it content must be delivered by instructional media.
The media may be primarily
print (books and paper-im and-pencil tests), as in traditional correspondence
courses.
- Education for Exceptional Students
Media play an important role
in the education of students with exceptionalities. Adapted and specially
designed media can contribute enormously to cffective u instruction of all
students and can help them achieve at re their highest potential regardless of
their innate abilities.
Children with disabilities in particular need special instructional treatment. Children with mental retardation need highly structured learning situations because n their prior knowledge and ability to incorporate messages into mental constructs is limited. Gifted and talented students can use videotape and other media to explore topics beyond or in addition to that covered by other students in the class.
Children with disabilities in particular need special instructional treatment. Children with mental retardation need highly structured learning situations because n their prior knowledge and ability to incorporate messages into mental constructs is limited. Gifted and talented students can use videotape and other media to explore topics beyond or in addition to that covered by other students in the class.
- METHODS
Methods
are the procedures of instruction selected to help learners achieve the
objectives or to internalize the objectives or to internalize the content or
message. Media then, as already defined, are carriers of information between a
source and a receiver.
Ten Method Categories
1. Presentation.
2.
Demonstration.
Demonstrations may be recorded and played back by means of media
such as video. The objective may be for the learner to imitate a physical
performance (such as swinging a golf club or changing the oil in a car) or to
adopt the attitudes or values exemplified by somrone who serves as a role model.
3.
Discussion
As a method, discussion involves the exchange of ideas and opinions among students or among students and teacher. It car be used at any stage s of the instruction/learning process, and in small or large groups. In this context, discussion can help the instructor establish the kind of raport with and within the group that fosters collaborative and cooperative learning. It can be used to prepare learners for a prespentation by arousing their curiosity or by directing their attention to key points.
As a method, discussion involves the exchange of ideas and opinions among students or among students and teacher. It car be used at any stage s of the instruction/learning process, and in small or large groups. In this context, discussion can help the instructor establish the kind of raport with and within the group that fosters collaborative and cooperative learning. It can be used to prepare learners for a prespentation by arousing their curiosity or by directing their attention to key points.
4.
Drill
and practice
In drill-and-practice learners are led through a series of practice exercises designed to increase fluency in a new skill or to refresh an crist Coope ing one. Drill-and practice is used commonly for such tasks as make it studying math facts, learning a foreign language, and building a vocabulary.
In drill-and-practice learners are led through a series of practice exercises designed to increase fluency in a new skill or to refresh an crist Coope ing one. Drill-and practice is used commonly for such tasks as make it studying math facts, learning a foreign language, and building a vocabulary.
5.
Tutorial
Tutoring is most often done one on one and is frequently used to teach basic skills, such as reading and arithmetic. Tutorial arrangements include instructor-to-learner (e.g., Socratic dialog), learner-to-learner (e.g., tutoring or programmed tutoring), computer-to-learner (e.g., computer-assisted tutorial software), and print-to cussing t leamer (e.g., branching programmed instruction).
Tutoring is most often done one on one and is frequently used to teach basic skills, such as reading and arithmetic. Tutorial arrangements include instructor-to-learner (e.g., Socratic dialog), learner-to-learner (e.g., tutoring or programmed tutoring), computer-to-learner (e.g., computer-assisted tutorial software), and print-to cussing t leamer (e.g., branching programmed instruction).
6.
Cooperative
Learning
Critics of competitive learning urge instead an emphasis on cooperative learring as an instructional method. They argue that learners need to develop skills in working and learning together because their eventual workplaces will require teamwork. A common complaint of graduates is that they did not cxperience working in teams while in school. Students can learn cooperatively not only by discussing texts and viewing media but also by producing media. For example, the design and production of a video or a slide set as a curriculum project presents an opportunity for cooperative learning. The teacher should be a working partner with the students in such learning situations.
Critics of competitive learning urge instead an emphasis on cooperative learring as an instructional method. They argue that learners need to develop skills in working and learning together because their eventual workplaces will require teamwork. A common complaint of graduates is that they did not cxperience working in teams while in school. Students can learn cooperatively not only by discussing texts and viewing media but also by producing media. For example, the design and production of a video or a slide set as a curriculum project presents an opportunity for cooperative learning. The teacher should be a working partner with the students in such learning situations.
7.
Gaming
Gaming provides a playful environment in which learners follow
prescribed rules as they strive to attain a challenging goal.
It is a highly motivating
technique, especially for tedious and repetitive content.
8.
Simulation.
Simulation involves learners confronting a scaled-down version of a real-life situation. It allows realistic practice without the expense or risks otherwise in volved. The simulation may involve participant dialog, manipulation of materials and equipment, or interaction with a computer.
Simulation involves learners confronting a scaled-down version of a real-life situation. It allows realistic practice without the expense or risks otherwise in volved. The simulation may involve participant dialog, manipulation of materials and equipment, or interaction with a computer.
9. Discovery
The discovery method uses an
inductive, or inquiry, approach to learning, it presents problems to be solved
through trial and error.The aim of the discovery method is to foster a deeper understanding of the content through involvement with it.
10.
Problem
Solving
Problem solving involves placing students in the actuve role of being confronted with a novel prolem situated in the real world. Outcomes include analyzing, problem-framing, problem-solving, and critical-thinking skills.
Problem solving involves placing students in the actuve role of being confronted with a novel prolem situated in the real world. Outcomes include analyzing, problem-framing, problem-solving, and critical-thinking skills.
- TECHNOLOGY
The
word technology has always had a variety of connotations, ranging from mere
hardware to a way of solving problems.
The notion of technology being a process is high- lighted in the
definition ofinstructional technology given of .a: by the leading professional
association in that field: the P theory and practice of design, devclopment,
utilization, management and evaluation of processes and resources for learning
(Seels & Richey, 1994, p. 9), The developers of programmed instruction
called it a technology for learning. They believed that what was really
important was he proces of analyzing learning tasks, breaking them down into
their components, and then devising the steps th neccssary to help learners
master those tasks Over time, many technologies for learning have been
devcloped. Some, such as interactrre video, computer- based instruction, and
hypermedia, rely on mechanical and electronic devices for their delivery.
Others, such as programmed instruction, self-instructional modules, and
simulation games, do not. We use the term tech nologies for lkarning to refer
to the latter type.
No comments:
Post a Comment