CHAPTER 5: VISUAL PRINCIPLES
A. THE
ROLES OF VISUALS IN INSTRUCTION
Attempts
to make broad generalizations about the role of visuals in learning invariably
fail to yield simple answers. For erample, a major synthesis of research
studies comparing visual-based lessons (those using photographs, overhead
transparencies, video, and the like) with conventional instruction indicated a
small overall superiority in achievement for students who ex pcrienced the
visual treatment (Cohen, Ebeling, & Kulik, 1981). However, on closer
examination it was found that the degree of superiority depended on many
factors, including the subject matter and the utilization practices of the
teacher.
One role
that visuals definitely play is to provide a concrete referent for ideas. Words
don't look or sound (usually) like the thing they stand for, but visuals are
iconic that is, they have some resemblance to the thin they represent.
B. VISUAL LITERACY
Consider the
sorts of visuals that are used every day for important communication purposes,
such as the emergency information cards in airplanes or highway signs that warn
of dangerous curves or obstruction. Today, we use visual literacy to refer to
the learned ability to interpret visual message accurately and to create such
message. Visual literacy can be developed through two major approaches:
-Input strategies. Helping
learners to decode, or "read," visuals proficiently by practicing
visual analysis skills
-Output strategies.
Helping learners to encode, or
"write," visuals-to express themselves and communicate with others
(e.g., through planning and produing photo and video r sentations).
1. Decoding:
Interpreting Visuals Seeing a visual does not automatically ensure that one
will learn from it. Learners must be gui rect decoding of visuals. One aspect
of visual literacy, then, is the skill of interpreting and creating meaning
from surrounding stimuli.
a. Developmental Effects.
Many variables affect wh how learner
decodes a visual. Prior to the age of 12, children tend to interpret visuals
section by section rather than as a whole. In reporting what they see in a diso
picture, they are likely to single out specific elements within the scene.
b. Cultural Effects
In teaching, we must keep in mind
that the act of decoding visuals may be affected by the viewer's cultural
background. Different cultural groups may perccive visual materials in
different ways.
c. Visual Preferences
In selecting visuals, teachers
have to make appropriate choices between the sorts of visuals that are
preferred and those that are most effective. People do not necessarily arm best
from the kinds of pictures they prefer to look at.
2.
Encoding: Creating Visuals
Another route to visual literacy is through
student cre ation of visual presentations. Just as writing can spur reading,
producing media can be a highly effective way of understanding media. Most
older students have access to a camera.
For example, you could encourage
students to present reports to the class by carefully selecting sets of 35mm
slides, which can help them to develop their aesthetic talents. The video
camcorder is anothar convenient tool for students to practice creating and
presenting ideas and events pictorially. Or, students can photos or drawing
into a computer agen erat ed presentation using software such as power point.
C. GOALS OF VISUAL DESIGN
For purposes of information and instruction,
good visual design try to achieve at least four basic goals in terms of
improving communications.
1. Ensure Legibility
A visual cannot even begin to do
the job unless you can see the words and images. It's surprising how simple
this rule is broken. Think of how many times you have heard a presenter say,
"you mav not be able to scc what is this transparency, or let me read it
to you."
2. Reduce Effort
As a designer you want to convey,
your message is a way of making sense out of what they are secing and are free
to use the most of their mental coffers for understanding the message itself.
You may use several simple processes to help reduce the effort required to
interpret your visuals.
3. Increase Active Engagement
Your mesage doesn't stand a cahnce unless
people pay attention to it. So a major goal is to make your design as pealing
as posible to get viewer's attention and to entice them into thinking about
your message.
4. Focus Attention
Having enticed viewers into your
display, you then face the challenge of directing their attention to the most
important parts of your message.
D. PROCESS OF VISUAL DESIGN
1. Elements
Designing a visual display begins
by gathering or producing the individual pictorial and text elements that you
expect to use in the display. This assumes, of course, that you have already
determined students' needs and interests regarding the topic and decided what
objective you might achieve through the visual you are planning- be it a
bulletin board, an overhead transparency, printed cs handouts, or computer
screen display.
a.
Visual Elements
The type of visual sclected for a
particular situation depends on the learning task. Realistic visuals show the actual object
under study. Analogic visuals convey a concept or topic by showing something
else and implying similarity. Organizational visuals include flowcharts,
grapgs, maps, schematics, and classification charts.
b. Verbal Elements.
1)
Letter style. The style of lettering should be consistent and
should harmonize with the other elements of the visual.
2) Number of Lettering Styles. A
display or a serie of related visuals, such as a slide scrics-should use more
than two different type styles, and these should har monize with each other.
3) Capitals. For
best legibility, use lowercase letters adding capitals only where normally
required.
4) Color of Lettering. As
discussed later in the section "Figure- Ground Contrast," the color
of the lettering should contrast with the background color.
5) Size of Lettering.
Displays such as bulletin boards and posters are often meant to be viewed by
people sit- uated at a distance of 30 or 40 fect or more.
6) Spacing Between Letters. The
distance between the letters of individual words must be judged by experience
rather than on a mechanical basis.
7) Spacing Between Lines. The
vertical spacing between lines of printed material is also important for
legibility.
c. Elements That Add Appeal
1) Surprise. Think of an unusual metaphor, an incongruous
combination of word and picture, an abrupt infusion of color, a dramatic change
pf size.
2) Texture. Most
visuals are two dimensional. However, you can add a third dimension by using
texture or actual side materials.
3) Interaction. The R
of the ASSURE model ("Resual quire learner participation") applies to
all forms of media. Viewers can be asked to respond to visual displays by
manipulating materials on a display.
2. Pattern
a. Alignment. Viewers
will perceive elements to be aligned when the edges of those elements are
aligned on the same imaginary horizontal or vertical line.
b.
Shape. Your aim
should be to use a pattern that attracts and focuses attention as effortlessly
as possible.
c. Balance. With
asymmetrical balance there is rough equivalence of weight, but different
elements on each side.
d. Style.
Different audiences and settings call for different design style.
e. Color Scheme. When
choosing a color scheme for a display, consider the harmoniousness of the
colors.
f. Color Appeal. When choosing colors for instructional materials,
consider the emotional response you are seeking an active, dynamic, warm
feeling or a more contemplative, thoughtful, cool feeling.
3. Arrangement
a. Proximity.
Teachers can use this principle of proximity by putting related elements close
together and moving unrelated elements apart.
b. Direcriobals. Viewers
scan a display, with their attention moving from one part to another.
c. Figure-Ground Contrast.
Important elements, especially wording, should stand out in good contrast to
the background.
d. Consistency. If you
are planning a series of dispalys, such as a set of overhead transparencies, a
multipage handout, you should be consistent in your arrangement of the
elements.
E. VISUAL PLANNING TOOLS
1. Story board. This
technique allows you to creatively arrange and rearrange a whole sequence of
thumbnail sketches.
2. Types of Letters. A
variety of lettering techniques for visuals exists. The simplest is freehand
lettering with markers and felt tip pens, which come in an array of colors and
sizes.
3. Drawing, Sketching, and Cartooning. Simple
drawings can enchance chalk-board presentations, class handouts, bulletin
boards, and overhead transparencies.
F. DIGITAL IMAGES
Digital imaging allows users to
capture, edit, display, share, and network still and video images.
1. Digital Cameras
Digital cameras are small and
lightweight with fewer moving parts than traditional cameras.
2.
Scanners
Scanners work with computers to
transfer existing visual images, such as drawings or photograps, into digitized
computer graphic files.
